Source: German Centre for Higher Education Research and Science Studies, calculations; OECD, Main Science snd Technology Indicators March 2026

Notes:
¹⁾ Nominal expenditures converted into US dollar purchasing power parities.
²⁾ Including general funding for higher education research.
³⁾ PNP: private non-profit institutions.
⁴⁾ Some figures are revised, provisional, estimated or only partly comparable with figures from previous years or include other sectors (see original edition of "Main Science and Technology Indicators March 2026").
⁵⁾ Until 1990, only West German Länder. From 1991 to 2021, the PNP sector is included in the public sectors share of R&D expenditure. Increases in the higher education sector from 2016 onward are also due to methodological changes resulting from an adjustment of the R&D coefficients. From 2023, the reporting unit is a statistical enterprise in the business sector (until 2022, the reporting unit was a legal entity). For more recent calculations of the share of GDP for 2024, see Table 1.1.1.
⁶⁾ In 2012, several institutions were transferred from the PNP sector to the public sector. In 1998, two large nonprofit organizations were reclassified and transferred from the higher education sector to the public sector.
⁷⁾ The R&D financed by the government, business enterprises, and by the rest of the world can be retrieved but part of the expenditure has no specific source of financing, i.e. self-raised funding (in particular for independent research institutions), the funds from the higher education sector and left-over government grants from previous years. The government and higher education sectors cover all fields of "natural sciences and engineering" and "social sciences and humanities" while the business enterprise sector only covers the fields of "natural sciences and engineering". There are only few organisations in the private non-profit sector, hence no R&D survey has been carried out in this sector and the data are not available. Due to the reform of the science and technology system some government institutions have become enterprises, and their R&D data have been reflected in the Business Enterprise sector since 2000.
⁸⁾ As of 1999, provincial and local government funding is included in the GBARD data, as well as funding from the Danish National Research Foundation and the Danish Investment Fund. Until 2002, the higher education sector R&D expenditure was underestimated as R&D carried out in hospital departments at the university-hospitals was included in the government sector. Break in time series in 2007 due to a methodological adjustment in data collection and a change in the administrative structures of certain institutes, which were classified under the government sector until 2006 and under the higher education sector from 2007 onwards.
⁹⁾ As of 1995, funds received by the state research institutes from external sources are excluded from government allocations. As of 1997, the higher education sector includes central university hospitals. From 1998 to 2004, due to methodological reasons funds from other foreign enterprises were merged with business enterprise funds thus reducing the share of funds coming from the rest of the world.
¹⁰⁾ The method for recording funds spent on R&D in ministries and certain public institutions was adjusted, resulting in a more accurate recording of their funding activities starting in 2010. A new methodology was introduced in 2004 to correct certain instances of double-counting in funds allocated to universities. In 2007, the sampling procedure in the business sector was adjusted, and data from 2004 onward were revised in accordance with the new methodology. Starting in 2001, the scope of coverage for the business sector was expanded. The data reported by the Department of Defense were also expanded to include research activities that had not been classified as R&D in previous years. In 2000, several methodological changes that improved the quality of public sector data resulted in a break in the time series for that year. Due to changes in the methods used to record domestic defense expenditures, the results of the 1998 surveys showed significant discrepancies, necessitating new estimates for 1997. In 1991, France Télécom and GIAT Industries were transferred from the government sector to the private sector.
¹¹⁾ As of 2017, defense R&D will be classified under the business sector and removed from the other sectors. Both the business survey and the higher education survey were improved in 2009, resulting in a break in the time series for business sector R&D expenditure (BERD) funded by the rest of the world and the business sector, as well as a break in the time series in 2007 for higher education sector R&D expenditure (HERD) funded by the rest of the world and the higher education sector. Since 2000, hospitals have been classified under the business sector (until 1999, they were classified under the government and PNP sectors). Until 2007, the humanities and law were only partially covered in the higher education sector.
¹²⁾ GBARD data reflect the budget for science and technology. Local government budgets have been included in the overall GBARD figures since 2017. The methodology for compiling science and technology budgets changed starting in 2016. Military procurement contracts are excluded from the GBARD figures for the defense sector.
¹³⁾ In 2016, three large entities that had previously been classified under the business and higher education sectors were reclassified under the government sector. Since 2009, a large entity that had not previously been included has been classified as an R&D performer in the PNP sector.
¹⁴⁾ Until 2005, R&D data are underestimated: R&D in the government sector covers central government units only and companies between 10 to 49 employees are excluded from the coverage. In 1995, performance data of the higher education sector exclude most or all capital expenditure. From 1981 to 1991, business enterprise sector, government sector and PNP sector exclude R&D in the social sciences and humanities. As of 1998, excluding funding by public research foundations. 2015 data on GERD financed by the government sector and foreign sources are considered confidential. As of 2023, a break in the time series occurs due to a methodological change in data collection.
¹⁵⁾ The business enterprise sector comprises private enterprises only. Public enterprises are included in the Government sector. As of 2017, GBARD data are derived from a funder-based approach (performer-based approach before 2017). Before 1994, GBARD did not include the public sector financed R&D mandates.
¹⁶⁾ Until 2006, excluding R&D in the social sciences and humanities.
¹⁷⁾ As of 2022, business R&D data are based on an expanded coverage survey (larger sample size) and additional methodological improvements. As of 2014 (and at a more detailed level starting in 2018), upward corrections were made to the data in the enterprise business and higher education sectors.
¹⁸⁾ Excludes most or all capital expenditure (included in the business enterprise and government sectors only). Until 2008, government sector R&D performance covers only federal government activities. From 1981 to 2007, financing from foreign sources is included in the business enterprise sector, as of 2008, it is included in other national sources and abroad. Until 2002, the higher education sector excludes R&D in the social sciences and humanities. As of 2021, the increase in R&D capital expenditure in the business enterprise sector is due to a methodological change in data collection.

m = data not available.
y = data included in another position.
z = value not stated for reasons of confidentiality, but included in the total.

Last update: April 1, 2026